A chord built from three notes: a root, a third, and a fifth. The foundation of Western harmony. Major triads (1·3·5) sound bright and stable; minor triads (1·♭3·5) sound darker and more reflective. Diminished triads (1·♭3·♭5) create tension; augmented triads (1·3·♯5) have an unsettled, dreamy quality. The most complex harmonic structures are more often than not created by combinations or re-purposing of the humble triad.

A triad with its three notes inside one octave, on three neighbouring strings: root position (1·3·5), 1st inversion (3·5·1) or 2nd inversion (5·1·3), lowest note first. Close triads are compact and easy to move around the neck, and they are what Chord Lab shows under Close triads.

A close triad with its middle note moved up an octave, so the three notes spread over more than an octave: 1·5·3, 3·1·5 or 5·3·1, lowest note first. On guitar a string is skipped between at least two of the notes, for example C as G·E·C on strings 6, 4 and 2 (frets 3, 2, 1). Open triads sound wider and more like a piano or string section than close triads. Chord Lab shows them on eight string sets: 6-4-2, 5-3-1, 6-4-3, 5-3-2, 4-2-1, 6-5-3, 5-4-2 and 4-3-1.

A chord in which all notes are arranged within a single octave, stacked as closely together as possible in ascending order (root, third, fifth, seventh). Close voicings are the theoretical parent from which Drop 2, Drop 3, and other spread voicings are derived by lowering specific voices by an octave.

A four-note voicing created by taking a close-position chord and dropping the second-highest note down by one octave. This creates an open, spread sound that sits naturally on adjacent string sets of the guitar — making Drop 2 the most widely used jazz guitar voicing style. The resulting layout places the bass note and the dropped voice further apart, giving the chord more harmonic clarity and resonance than a close voicing.

A four-note voicing created by dropping the third-highest note of a close-position chord down by one octave. Drop 3 voicings span a wider interval range than Drop 2 and typically require skipping a string, giving them a more spread, open character. Commonly used in chord melody and comping where additional harmonic space is needed.

A voicing where both the second and fourth voices from the top are dropped an octave. Creates a very open, spread sound with a distinctive interval structure. Less common than Drop 2 or Drop 3 but valued for its unique texture in advanced arranging.

A minimal three-note voicing using only the root, 3rd and 7th — omitting the 5th entirely. The 3rd defines the chord quality (major or minor); the 7th defines the harmonic colour. Shell voicings create space for other instruments, produce a light, uncluttered sound, and are highly effective for voice leading as the third and seventh move efficiently between chords. The concept is central to jazz guitar comping.

Any voicing where chord tones are distributed across more than one octave. Drop 2 and Drop 3 are the most common spread voicings on guitar. Spread voicings generally sound more open and resonant than close position voicings.

A voicing built from stacked perfect fourths rather than thirds. Avoids defining major or minor quality, creating an ambiguous, modern sound. Associated with McCoy Tyner and modal jazz.

A triad or chord played in the upper register over a bass note or shell voicing that is harmonically distinct from it. The upper structure triad creates a complex extended or altered chord sound while remaining physically and conceptually simple — a basic triad shape the guitarist already knows. The key insight: no matter how harmonically complex the written chord, it can almost always be understood and executed as a simple triad superimposed over a root or shell voicing.

A chord built by stacking two distinct chords on top of each other — typically a triad over a bass note or another chord. The upper chord (usually a triad) and the lower chord (usually a root, shell, or bass note) combine to create an extended or altered harmonic colour. Polychord notation uses a horizontal line between two chord symbols: triad on top, bass chord below.

The specific arrangement of notes within a chord — which notes are included, in which order from bottom to top, and which octave each occupies. Two chords with identical note names but different arrangements are different voicings. Voicing choices determine register, resonance, voice leading potential, and physical playability on the guitar.

The technique of placing one triad on top of another to create extended or altered chord sounds. The most complex harmonic structures are more often than not created by combining or re-purposing the humble triad. For example, a C major triad with a D major triad stacked above it produces a CMaj13♯11 sound. By isolating each triad and treating it as a melodic motif, the player gains both chordal and single-line improvisational material simultaneously.

A chord voicing in which the root is deliberately omitted, leaving only the 3rd, 7th and one or more extensions or alterations. Rootless voicings are especially effective on guitar because the six-string limitation makes complex extended chords difficult to voice with the root included. In an ensemble the bass player supplies the root, freeing the guitarist to focus on the harmonically defining tones (3rd and 7th) and colour tones (9th, 11th, 13th). Closely related to the inferred root concept.

A close-position voicing technique in which four voices move in parallel with the melody, harmonising every melody note. The classic four-way close approach places the melody on top and stacks the 7th, 5th and 3rd of each chord immediately below. Introduced to the jazz vocabulary by pianist Milt Buckner and refined by George Shearing, the block chord approach translates to guitar via Drop 2 and Drop 3 voicings on adjacent string sets.

A chord voicing in which a note other than the root is placed in the bass. First inversion = third in the bass; second inversion = fifth in the bass; third inversion = seventh in the bass. In practical jazz performance, the choice of inversion is often left to the player and determined by voice leading considerations rather than written instruction.

The chord with its root note in the bass. The most stable sounding inversion — grounded and resolved. Most chord progressions begin and end with chords in root position.

The chord with the 3rd in the bass. Creates a slightly less stable sound, useful for smooth bass-line movement. A C major chord in first inversion has E in the bass.

The chord with the 5th in the bass. Creates tension, often used as a passing chord or to build momentum.

The chord with the 7th in the bass. Only available on 7th chords. Creates a strong pull toward resolution — the 7th in the bass wants to move downward by a semitone.

A chord notation and voicing technique in which a chord symbol is placed over a specific bass note using a slash (e.g. E♭7/A, D♭7/B). The upper chord and the bass note may or may not be harmonically related in a conventional sense — the slash voicing is often used to indicate a specific inversion, a polychordal structure, or a synonym chord where the true root is suppressed.

A root note that is understood harmonically but not physically played in the voicing. On guitar, the limitations of six strings mean that roots and fifths are frequently omitted to make complex voicings physically playable. An inferred root is shown on chord diagrams as an empty circle. Many upper structure and synonym voicings work specifically because the root is inferred rather than stated.

A four-note chord built from the root, major 3rd, perfect 5th and major 7th (1·3·5·7). Has a warm, sophisticated sound — lush but stable. The I and IV chords in a major key. Cmaj7 = C·E·G·B.

A four-note chord built from the root, minor 3rd, perfect 5th and minor 7th (1·♭3·5·♭7). A softer, more melancholic quality. The II, III and VI chords in a major key. Dm7 = D·F·A·C.

A four-note chord built from the root, major 3rd, perfect 5th and minor 7th (1·3·5·♭7). Creates strong tension that wants to resolve to the tonic — the V chord in any key. The tritone between the 3rd and ♭7th is what gives it its irresistible pull toward resolution. G7 = G·B·D·F.

A four-note chord built from root, minor 3rd, diminished 5th and minor 7th (1·♭3·♭5·♭7). The term half diminished reflects the fact that the chord is only partially diminished: it contains a diminished triad, but the seventh is a minor seventh rather than a fully diminished seventh. Its most common functional role is as the II chord in a minor II–V–I progression. The defining interval is the tritone between the root and the diminished fifth.

Built from root, minor 3rd, diminished 5th and diminished 7th (1·♭3·♭5·♭♭7). Fully symmetrical — every interval is a minor third, dividing the octave into four equal parts. Only three unique diminished seventh chords exist across all 12 roots. Resolves naturally to the chord a semitone above any of its notes, making it a highly versatile approach chord.

A triad built from two major thirds (1·3·♯5). Divides the octave into three equal major thirds, making it symmetrical with only three unique forms across all 12 roots (C aug = E aug = A♭ aug). The raised fifth creates an unresolved, floating quality. In the upper structure context, augmented sounds are generated using whole tone scale material.

A minor chord with an added major sixth (1·♭3·5·6). As demonstrated in the synonym system, a minor six chord contains the same four notes as the m7♭5 chord built on its sixth. Example: Gm6 (G–B♭–D–E) = Eø7 (E–G–B♭–D). The minor sixth sound carries a distinctive, somewhat mysterious quality and is prevalent in gypsy jazz harmony.

A major triad with an added major sixth (1·3·5·6). Sweet and settled — a common alternative to the Maj7 as a tonic chord, especially in swing, older standards and gypsy jazz, where the major 7th can sound too bright against the melody. C6 = C·E·G·A, the same four notes as Am7: which one you hear depends on the bass note and the context.

A chord where the 3rd is replaced by a perfect 4th (1·4·5). Creates suspension — the 4th wants to resolve down to the 3rd. Neither major nor minor in quality. In jazz, sus4 dominant chords are commonly used to delay dominant resolution or as a softer substitute for the full altered dominant.

Notes added to a basic seventh chord beyond the octave. The ninth is the second an octave higher; the eleventh is the fourth an octave higher; the thirteenth is the sixth an octave higher. Extensions colour and enrich the chord without changing its fundamental function. On guitar, full extended chords are almost always voiced selectively, omitting the 5th and sometimes the root. The upper structure triad system makes these voicings accessible through simple triad shapes.

A dominant seventh chord in which the alterable extensions (5th and 9th) have been modified: ♭5 or ♯5 (or both), ♭9 or ♯9 (or both). The altered dominant produces maximum tension before resolution to the I chord. The term alt on a chord chart instructs the player to choose any combination of altered tones that fits the musical context.

A chord that shares identical notes with another chord but is named differently depending on harmonic context. The four-way synonym group built from C major: C9 = Eø7 = Gm6 = G♭7♯5♭9. All four chords share the same four notes (E, G, B♭, D). The concept recognises that chords are not rigid sound blocks but fluid structures whose identity depends on musical function rather than fixed content.

The minor seven flat five (ø7) heard as a synonym rather than a fixed block of sound. One four-note structure stands in for four chords, worked out from any major triad: the 9th chord on its root, the ø7 on its third, the m6 on its fifth, and the 7♯5♭9 on the flattened fifth of the root. From C major (C–E–G) that gives C9 = Eø7 = Gm6 = G♭7♯5♭9, so the same shapes and single-line ideas can be redeployed over all four. A fifth reading, A7sus4♭9 in this example, is also valid without its root. Played as the dominant 9th, the structure leaves the root out, which lets the 9th breathe. The concept, the twelve groupings and their use over minor and major II–V–I progressions are the subject of Ged Brockie's The Protean Chord For Jazz Guitar.

A chord containing root, 3rd, 5th, 6th and 9th — a major triad with both a 6th and a 9th added. Written Cmaj6/9 or C6/9. Produces a bright, open, warm colour without the harmonic tension of a maj7 chord. Widely used as a substitute for maj7 in ballad and bossa nova contexts where the semitone rub between the 7th and the root would be too sharp.

A triad with a 9th added but with no 7th present — distinguishing it from a maj9 or 9 chord. Written Cadd9 or C(add9). Because there is no 7th, the 9th does not function as an extension of a 7th chord but as a colour tone added directly to a triad. Produces an open, contemporary sound widely used in modern acoustic and pop guitar arranging.

A minor triad with a major 7th on top: 1·♭3·5·♮7. Written Cm(maj7) or Cm♮7. The natural sign in Cm9(♮7) is used specifically to distinguish the major 7th from the flattened 7th of a standard minor 7 chord — writing it as C♯7 would be incorrect. The minor-major 7 is the tonic chord of the melodic minor scale and appears prominently in the descending line cliché (Cm → Cm(♮7) → Cm7 → Cm6). Distinctive, unresolved, cinematic quality.

A major 7th chord with a raised 11th. Formula: 1·3·5·7·9·♯11 (the natural 9th is almost always present in voicings). The ♯11 is the defining Lydian note — a tritone above the root — producing the floating, unresolved brightness of the Lydian mode. Common in modern jazz composition and film scoring. The Fastlines Advanced backing tracks include entire Lydian landscapes built from Maj7♯11 centres.

A dominant seventh chord with added extensions. The dominant 9 adds the natural 9th (1·3·5·♭7·9); the dominant 13 adds the natural 13th (1·3·5·♭7·9·13). The dominant 11 is a special case — the natural 11 clashes with the major 3rd and is almost always either raised (♯11, giving Lydian Dominant) or replaced by a sus4. On guitar these chords are voiced selectively — the 5th is usually omitted, the root sometimes inferred, and the extensions placed in the upper voices where they colour the harmony most effectively.

Extended forms of the minor 7 chord. Minor 9: 1·♭3·5·♭7·9. Minor 11: 1·♭3·5·♭7·9·11 — the natural 11 sits comfortably above a ♭3, unlike the dominant version. Minor 13: 1·♭3·5·♭7·9·11·13. These are the natural extensions of the Dorian mode, so a minor 13 chord effectively spells out the entire Dorian scale in one voicing. Commonly used as the II chord in major II–V–I progressions and as the tonic chord in modal jazz.

A dominant seventh chord in which the 3rd is replaced by the perfect 4th: 1·4·5·♭7. Written G7sus4 or G7sus. Neither major nor minor in quality — the suspended 4th softens the dominant tension. Frequently used as a delaying tactic before the full dominant resolves (7sus4 → 7 → I) or as a chord in its own right for a more ambiguous, floating quality. The characteristic sound of many jazz ballads and modal compositions.

A major or minor triad built on a specific scale degree and superimposed over a dominant seventh shell to produce extended or altered sounds. Each triad brings specific colour: a D major triad over C7 produces C13♯11 (Lydian Dominant); an E♭ major triad over C7 produces C7♯9 (the Hendrix chord); a G♭ major triad over C7 produces C7♭5♭9.

A dominant seventh chord with both a natural thirteenth and a raised eleventh (♯11). The raised 11th gives the chord its distinctive bright, unresolved quality — it implies the Lydian Dominant mode (fourth mode of melodic minor). Produced by superimposing a major triad a whole tone above the dominant root. Example: D major over C7 = C13♯11.

A dominant seventh chord with a raised ninth (♯9). The ♯9 is enharmonically equivalent to a minor third above the root — creating a sound that simultaneously implies both major and minor. This harmonic ambiguity is what gives the chord its raw, bluesy tension. Produced by superimposing a major triad a minor third above the dominant root. Example: E♭ major over C7 = C7♯9.

The movement of individual notes (voices) from one chord to the next. Good voice leading means each voice moves by the smallest possible interval to its counterpart in the following chord, creating smooth, connected harmonic motion. The third and seventh of a chord are the most important voices to connect efficiently — in a II–V–I, the seventh of the II chord typically becomes the third of the V chord, and the seventh of the V resolves down by a semitone to the third of I.

The 3rd and 7th of a chord — the two notes that define its quality and function. In voice leading, smooth guide tone movement (often by a semitone) creates strong harmonic connection between chords. The 5th is the most expendable voice and is frequently omitted; the root is next. Guide tones are the skeleton around which all voice leading is built.

When the melody (highest voice) and bass (lowest voice) move in opposite directions — one rises while the other falls. Considered the most harmonically sophisticated and powerful of the four melody/bass relationships. Creates independence between the parts and is a hallmark of polyphonic writing and advanced chord melody arranging.

When all voices move in the same direction by the same interval. Creates a strong, unified sound. Parallel fifths and octaves are traditionally avoided in classical harmony as they reduce the independence of the voices. In jazz guitar chord melody, parallel motion using specific intervals (sixths, tenths) creates a characteristic full sound when moved deliberately.

Voices move in the same direction but by different intervals. Less rigid than parallel motion, more unified than contrary motion. Common in jazz comping where a chord shape moves up or down the neck while the intervals shift to fit the harmony.

One voice stays on a fixed pitch while another voice moves freely. The fixed voice is the pedal tone; the moving voice provides harmonic interest around it. The combination of a fixed note with moving harmony creates the characteristic sound of pedal tone passages in jazz and classical music.

A sustained or repeated note held in either the bass or the top voice while the other voices move freely. The four traditional types: tonic pedal (root of chord I in bass), dominant pedal (root of chord V in bass), inverted tonic pedal (chord I note as the top voice), inverted dominant pedal (chord V note as the top voice). The term derives from the organ pedal — the foot pedal that holds a bass note while the hands play changing harmonies above.

Like a pedal tone but in the melody — the highest voice is held while the lower voices move. Also called a soprano pedal. Creates a hypnotic, suspended quality. Common in ballads where a high note rings out while the harmony shifts beneath it.

Each voice moves as little as possible from one chord to the next. The most efficient and often smoothest-sounding approach to voice leading. When changing chords, any notes common to both chords are held in place; other voices move by the smallest available interval.

The most fundamental harmonic progression in jazz. In a major key: IIm7–V7–Imaj7 (e.g. Dm7–G7–Cmaj7). In a minor key: IIø7–V7alt–Im (e.g. Dø7–G7alt–Cm). The V7 chord contains a tritone that resolves stepwise into the I chord — the third resolves up to the tonic, the seventh resolves down to the third of I. Virtually all jazz standard chord sequences can be understood as a network of II–V–I patterns in related keys.

Chords built exclusively from the notes of a given scale, without chromatic alteration. Every degree of a scale can serve as the root of a diatonic chord. Knowing the diatonic chord sequence for any key is foundational to understanding chord function and substitution.

The replacement of a dominant seventh chord with another dominant seventh chord whose root is a tritone (six semitones) away. Because both chords share the same tritone interval (their thirds and sevenths are the same notes, just swapped), they resolve to the same tonic. Example: G7 and D♭7 both resolve to C. The true purpose of tritone substitution is not simply to swap chords — it creates smooth chromatic bass movement (D♭ resolves down a semitone to C rather than G resolving up a fourth).

The replacement of a dominant chord with the dominant chord whose root is a tritone (flattened fifth) away. Because both chords share the same tritone — their 3rds and ♭7ths are the same notes, just swapped — they resolve to the same tonic. The true purpose is to create chromatic bass movement that escapes the cycle of fourths: a root movement of a perfect fourth becomes a semitone movement downward. This chromatic bass motion is one of the defining sounds of jazz.

A dominant seventh chord that temporarily tonicises a chord other than the home key's tonic. Notated as V7/x — the five of x. Example: in C major, A7 is V7/II because it resolves to Dm7 as if Dm7 were temporarily a tonic. Secondary dominants are the most basic form of chromatic harmony in jazz and appear in virtually every standard.

The replacement or alteration of the original chords of a song with different chords that preserve the overall harmonic sense while adding variety, sophistication, or surprise. Techniques include tritone substitution, diatonic substitution (chord III for chord I), chromatic mediants, secondary dominants, and synonym chords.

The harmonic role a chord plays within a key rather than its literal note content. A chord can only be fully understood when considered within the harmonic progression it inhabits. The synonym concept is built on the insight that different chord names can share the same function when their note content is identical.

A short chord progression at the end of a section (typically bars 7–8 or 15–16) that propels the music back to the beginning. The most basic jazz turnaround is I–VI–II–V, e.g. Cmaj7–A7–Dm7–G7. Turnarounds are a primary site for reharmonisation — substituting chords, adding tritone substitutes, or using synonym chords to create more chromatic motion back to the tonic.

The replacement of one chord with another that serves the same harmonic function or shares sufficient common tones to sound coherent in context. The synonym system is a specific form of substitution — replacing a chord with one of its three harmonic equivalents.

A common jazz substitution in which the III chord is used in place of the I chord. In C major: Emin7 substituting for Cmaj7. Because the III chord shares two notes with the I chord (the third and fifth of I become the root and minor third of III), the substitution preserves harmonic colour while adding a slightly more ambiguous, less settled quality.

The switching of the 3rd and ♭7th roles when a dominant seventh chord is replaced by its tritone substitute. In G7, F♯ is the 3rd and C is the ♭7th. In D♭7 (the tritone substitute), C is the 3rd and G♭ (enharmonically F♯) is the ♭7th. The notes flip their identities completely. When chord progressions move around the cycle of fourths, this polarity switching happens at every step.

Harmony built from chords or scales that divide the octave into equal parts. The two primary symmetrical systems in jazz are the diminished seventh (dividing the octave into four equal minor thirds) and the augmented/whole tone system (dividing into three equal major thirds or six equal whole tones). Because of this symmetry, any chord shape or melodic motif can be repeated at regular intervals up the fretboard and continue to make harmonic sense over the same chord.

A sequence of chords not tied to any specific key centre — chords wandering freely with no established tonal gravity. Vagrant harmony creates a sense of freedom and disorientation, deliberately avoiding resolution until the improviser chooses to land. Parallel voicings over a pedal tone are one effective way to create vagrant harmonic ideas while maintaining a thread of coherence through the pedal note.

Borrowing a chord from a parallel mode or scale — most commonly from the parallel minor. In C major, borrowing ♭VII7 (B♭7) or IVm7 (Fm7) from C minor creates a characteristic darker colouring. Also called borrowed chords. Parallel keys share the same root note but differ in quality and note content.

An arrangement of all 12 keys where each step moves a perfect fifth up (or a perfect fourth up — the same motion in opposite directions). Most jazz harmony moves in the cycle of fourths direction: II to V is up a fourth; V to I is up a fourth. Practising scales, arpeggios, and chord forms round the cycle is the most effective way to achieve full fretboard coverage in all 12 keys.

An interval spanning exactly three whole tones (six semitones), dividing the octave exactly in half. Only six unique tritone pairs exist across all 12 keys. The tritone is the defining interval of dominant seventh and m7♭5 chords — in G7, the tritone falls between B (the 3rd) and F (the ♭7th). Its inherently unstable quality drives harmonic tension and resolution. Each tritone pair addresses two dominant seventh chords — this is the mechanical basis of tritone substitution.

Two notes, intervals, or chords that sound identical but are written differently. F♯ and G♭ are the same pitch but notated differently depending on harmonic context. Enharmonic equivalence is particularly relevant in altered harmony — G♭7♯5♭9 and F♯7♯5♭9 are the same chord — and in the synonym system where a chord's identity shifts depending on which root is considered active.

Every major key has a relative minor key that shares exactly the same notes and key signature. The relative minor is found on the 6th degree of the major scale — C major's relative minor is A minor. On the Cycle of Fifths wheel, relative keys sit at the same position (inner/outer ring). This relationship means the same chord shapes, scale patterns, and arpeggios work in both keys — only the harmonic emphasis and tonal centre changes.

A harmonic ending — the way a phrase or section resolves. The four principal cadences: perfect (V–I, the strongest and most conclusive), plagal (IV–I, the amen cadence, softer and more devotional), deceptive (V–VI, where the expected resolution to I is avoided and lands unexpectedly on the VI chord), and half (any progression ending on V, leaving the phrase unresolved and requiring continuation). In jazz, the II–V–I is the most common cadence, functioning as an elaborated perfect cadence.

A form of modal interchange in which a IV7–♭VII7–I is used in a major key — borrowed from the parallel minor. Example in C major: Fm7–B♭7–Cmaj7. The B♭7 (♭VII7) is the dominant of the parallel minor's relative major, and resolves to the major I chord by a whole tone rather than by a perfect fifth — hence backdoor. Gives a distinctive, slightly melancholic pull to the tonic. Ubiquitous in Great American Songbook composition.

A stepwise chromatic line moving inside an otherwise static chord, creating the illusion of harmonic motion over a single sustained chord. The classic descending example on a minor chord: Cm → Cm(♮7) → Cm7 → Cm6, where the top voice descends C → B → B♭ → A while the underlying Cm triad remains unchanged. Famously heard in James Bond themes, Michelle by The Beatles, and countless jazz ballads.

A change of key achieved by using a chord common to both the old key and the new key as the transition point. The pivot chord functions in the old key on the way in and in the new key on the way out. Example: modulating from C major to G major, Am7 functions as VI in C but as II in G — the ear accepts the new tonal centre smoothly because the pivot chord makes harmonic sense in both keys.

Harmony in which chords do not progress along a traditional functional path (tonic → subdominant → dominant → tonic) but instead float, repeat, or move through non-hierarchical relationships. Modal jazz — where a single mode is sustained across many bars — is the clearest example. Static harmony creates a sense of suspended time and shifts the listener's focus from harmonic momentum to melodic and timbral expression.

The fundamental scale of Western music — seven notes with the pattern T·T·S·T·T·T·S (tones and semitones). All diatonic chords and modes derive from it. The seven fretted major scale patterns in seven positions are the foundation of all fretboard scale knowledge — melodic minor and harmonic minor patterns are derived from them by modifying a single note.

The natural minor scale shares its notes exactly with its relative major — A natural minor uses the same notes as C major. The m7♭5 chord appears at position II of the natural minor scale. In terms of modes, the natural minor is the Aeolian mode — the sixth mode of the major scale, with a ♭3rd, ♭6th and ♭7th relative to major.

Identical to the natural minor scale except for a raised seventh degree. This raised seventh creates a minor second interval between the 7th and the tonic — providing strong leading-tone resolution. It also produces an augmented second interval between the 6th and 7th degrees, giving the scale its characteristic exotic quality. Diatonic harmony: Im(maj7)–IIø7–♭IIImaj7♯5–IVm7–V7–♭VImaj7–VII°7. The presence of the natural V7 chord makes the harmonic minor the theoretical basis for the minor II–V–I progression.

A seven-note scale that raises both the sixth and seventh degrees of the natural minor scale (ascending form — in jazz, used ascending and descending, often called the jazz minor). Diatonic harmony: Im(maj7)–IIm7–♭IIImaj7♯5–IV7–V7–VIø7–VIIø7. The II chord of melodic minor is a minor seventh (not half-diminished); the ø7 chords sit on VI and VII, and VII is the home of the altered scale. Rich source of jazz modes including Lydian Dominant and the Altered Scale.

The second mode of the major scale — a minor scale with a raised 6th (1·2·♭3·4·5·6·♭7). Brighter than natural minor. The natural scale of the minor seventh chord in its most common jazz usage — the II chord in a major key is Dorian. Widely used in jazz, blues and rock. The defining sound of modal jazz — Miles Davis's So What is built entirely on D Dorian.

The third mode of the major scale — a minor scale with a flattened 2nd (1·♭2·♭3·4·5·♭6·♭7). Dark and Spanish in character. The III chord in a major key is Phrygian. The Phrygian Dominant (fifth mode of harmonic minor, with a major third) is used extensively over altered dominant chords and is the defining sound of Spanish and Middle Eastern harmony.

The fourth mode of the major scale — a major scale with a raised 4th/♯11 (1·2·3·♯4·5·6·7). Bright, floating quality — the raised fourth removes the subdominant pull, creating an unresolved brightness. The IV chord in a major key is Lydian. The natural scale of the Maj7♯11 chord.

The fifth mode of the major scale — identical to a major scale with a flattened seventh (1·2·3·4·5·6·♭7). The natural scale of the dominant seventh chord — playing Mixolydian over a V7 produces a diatonic, unaltered dominant sound. Ubiquitous in blues, rock and jazz improvisation.

The seventh mode of the major scale. It is the natural scale of the m7♭5 chord as it appears at position VII of the major scale and position II of the natural minor scale. Characterised by a ♭2 and ♭5 above the tonic — the only mode in which the tonic triad itself is diminished. Playing the major scale from one semitone above a m7♭5 root produces a Locrian sound over that chord.

The fourth mode of the melodic minor scale — identical to Mixolydian with a raised fourth (♯11). Combines the dominant seventh chord's ♭7 with the Lydian ♯11, creating a sound that is simultaneously bright and tense. The natural scale of the 13♯11 dominant chord. One of the most widely used scales over dominant chords in jazz — the ♯11 avoids the natural 4th which clashes with the 3rd of a dominant chord.

The seventh mode of the melodic minor scale. Contains all possible alterations of the dominant chord simultaneously: ♭9, ♯9, ♭5/♯11, ♯5/♭13. The definitive scale for playing over altered dominant chords. Its practical derivation: play the melodic minor scale starting from a semitone above the dominant root. Example: for G7alt, play A♭ melodic minor.

A five-note scale. The major pentatonic uses degrees 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 of the major scale — omitting the 4th and 7th. The minor pentatonic uses 1, ♭3, 4, 5, ♭7 — omitting the 2nd and 6th. The major and minor pentatonic are relative to each other: A minor pentatonic shares the same notes as C major pentatonic. The minor pentatonic is the most widely used scale in blues and rock improvisation.

The minor pentatonic with an added flattened fifth (♭5) — known as the blue note — giving six notes. Formula: 1–♭3–4–♭5–5–♭7. The ♭5 creates the characteristic tension and expressiveness of blues phrasing. Blues scales in their open string forms are often overlooked in favour of fretted versions — but the open position shapes are the foundation of all fretted blues scale work.

A six-note scale in which every interval is a whole tone. Only two whole tone scales exist across all 12 roots. The scale has no hierarchy of tension or resolution — all notes feel equally ambiguous. Produces the 9th, ♯11 (♭5), and ♯5 (♭13) extensions — the natural source of the 7♯5 and 13♯11 sounds. Moving either whole tone pattern up or down by one semitone automatically moves through the cycle of fourths.

An eight-note scale alternating whole tone and semitone steps. Two forms: whole step/half step (used over diminished seventh chords) and half step/whole step (used over dominant 7♭9 chords). Only three unique diminished scales exist — the same scale works for four different roots simultaneously. Patterns repeat every three frets due to symmetrical construction.

The foundational scale from which all other scales, chords, and arpeggios are derived. Contains all twelve semitones of the octave — every note available in Western music. Because it contains every note, the chromatic scale has no inherent key centre or tonal gravity of its own. Its primary value is as a warm-up tool, a fretboard mapping resource, and a device for adding chromatic passing tones within improvised lines.

The seven modes of the major scale are not separate scales requiring separate patterns — they are the same seven major scale patterns started from different root notes within the same key. Playing a C major scale from D produces D Dorian; from F produces F Lydian; from B produces B Locrian. The Roman numeral position of a chord in a progression directly indicates which mode applies: chord II → Dorian; chord IV → Lydian; chord V → Mixolydian. Modes should be understood as tools for musical expression, not academic ends in themselves.

The fifth mode of the harmonic minor scale. Identical to the Phrygian mode but with a major 3rd instead of a minor 3rd: 1·♭2·3·4·5·♭6·♭7. The augmented second interval between the ♭2 and the major 3rd gives the scale its unmistakable Spanish, Middle Eastern and flamenco flavour. The natural scale to play over the V7 in a minor key II–V–I, and the defining sound of Spanish and Sephardic music.

Eight-note scales created by adding a chromatic passing tone to a seven-note scale, so that chord tones fall on strong beats when the scale is played in eighth notes at swing tempo. The dominant bebop scale adds a natural 7th to the Mixolydian mode (creating a chromatic passing tone between the ♭7 and root). The major bebop scale adds a ♯5 to the major scale (chromatic passing tone between the 5th and 6th). The minor bebop scale adds a natural 3rd to the Dorian mode. The bebop scales are the mechanical device that makes bebop phrasing work — the extra note ensures the ear hears chord tones on the beat.

The major scale with a flattened 6th degree: 1·2·3·4·5·♭6·7. Less widely used than harmonic minor or melodic minor, but a rich source of colour for reharmonisation. The V chord of harmonic major is a dominant 7 with a ♭9 and ♭13 (but a natural 5th) — a distinctive altered dominant sound. The fourth mode (the Lydian ♭3, sometimes called Melodic Minor ♯4) is used over minor-major chords for a bright, unusual quality.

The notes of a chord played individually in sequence rather than simultaneously. Arpeggios are the bridge between chordal and single-line playing — a guitarist who can balance scales and arpeggios in improvisation engages more directly with the underlying harmony. Playing a m7♭5 arpeggio built from the third of a dominant chord produces a dominant ninth sound; built from a whole tone below the dominant root, it produces an altered sound.

Constructing a single-note melodic line so that the individual chord tones of each chord in a progression are clearly audible within it — the line outlines the harmony by emphasising chord tones (root, 3rd, 5th, 7th) at rhythmically strong points. Chord outlining is the most fundamental approach to jazz improvisation: a player who can outline the changes clearly is always communicating the harmony, regardless of scale choice.

Playing in a defined area of the fretboard (typically a four-to-five fret span) without shifting hand position. Each of the five pentatonic patterns, and their related scale and arpeggio forms, can be played in position. Positional playing allows fluency within a single neck region; combining positions through deliberate position shifts creates broader melodic range.

Moving the fretting hand from one area of the neck to another during a phrase. Connecting scale patterns through position shifts is what allows melodic lines to travel freely across the full range of the guitar. The guitar's seven-position major scale system provides a framework for moving between positions systematically.

The direction and shape of a melodic line — whether it moves upward, downward, or in a combination of both. By treating a triad as a melodic motif and deliberately altering its contour (both triads ascending; first up second down; first down second up; both descending), a single two-triad concept generates four distinct melodic ideas.

Taking a short melodic idea and repeating it at regular intervallic distances — particularly at minor third intervals for diminished/symmetrical contexts. The repetition can be literal or varied in direction. The symmetrical structure of the diminished and whole tone scales means that the motif continues to make harmonic sense at each position. A key principle: an unresolved or outside melodic idea played symmetrically will still sound musically coherent if resolved at the cadential point.

Playing a line or chord shape chromatically adjacent to the expected harmony — a semitone above or below the target chord — before resolving into it. Side slipping creates momentary harmonic tension by stepping outside the key, then releases it by landing on the target chord. Rather than approaching a single note by a semitone, the entire melodic idea or chord shape is displaced by a semitone before resolving.

Over a static minor chord, playing pentatonic scales built on scale degrees I, II, and V of the minor key creates harmonic movement while remaining idiomatic. Example over Am7: A minor pentatonic (I), B minor pentatonic (II), and E minor pentatonic (V). Their relative major equivalents are interchangeable. This approach creates the impression of harmonic motion over a single chord.

Notes from outside the prevailing scale, inserted between scale tones to create smooth chromatic voice leading in a melodic line. Used judiciously, chromatic passing tones add colour, tension, and momentum without disrupting the harmonic sense of the phrase — the key is that they resolve to a strong scale or chord tone.

The rhythmic character of jazz in which eighth notes are played unevenly — the first eighth of each pair is lengthened and the second is shortened, approaching a triplet subdivision. Swing feel is not simply a technical instruction but a fundamental expressive quality that distinguishes jazz phrasing from straight (even) eighth note playing.

Rhythmic placement of accents or notes on weak beats or between beats, rather than on the strong beats of the bar. Syncopated rhythms are a defining characteristic of jazz phrasing — playing off the beat creates forward momentum and swing feel.

A bebop device in which a target chord tone is approached from both above and below — typically a chromatic note above and a diatonic (or chromatic) note below — before landing on the target. The classic three-note enclosure lands on beat one after two eighth-note approach tones on beats four-and and one (or similar rhythmic placements). Enclosures are one of the most identifiable features of bebop language and give improvised lines the characteristic sense of purposeful arrival on strong beats.

A slow-moving line built entirely from the 3rds and 7ths of the underlying chord progression. Because the 3rd and 7th are the defining guide tones of each chord, a guide-tone line traces the harmonic skeleton of the tune with a single-voice melody. Constructing and internalising the guide-tone line of a standard is one of the most effective ways to hear the changes clearly and build improvised lines that reflect the harmony without relying on scales.

The vocabulary of melodic devices — enclosures, chromatic passing tones, bebop scales, arpeggios launched from the 3rd or 7th of the chord, and rhythmically placed target notes — that defines the improvisational style of Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Bud Powell and their inheritors. Bebop language is not just a set of licks but a coherent grammar for connecting chord changes with fluid, harmonically transparent lines.

Deliberately playing notes or lines that lie outside the prevailing harmony to create tension, before resolving back inside. Techniques include side slipping (chromatic displacement), superimposing a different scale over the underlying chord, or playing patterns in symmetrical intervals. The key to successful outside playing is the resolution — the outside idea only functions musically if it lands cleanly on a chord tone at the cadential point.

A phrase structure in which a musical statement (the call) is answered by a contrasting phrase (the response). Deep-rooted in African, gospel and blues traditions; central to how improvisers develop conversational melodic ideas. Applied to a single instrument, call and response manifests as short antecedent phrases followed by consequent phrases — the improviser is effectively both speaker and answerer.

The specific group of adjacent guitar strings on which a chord voicing or arpeggio pattern is played. The guitar's six strings allow voicings to be played on string sets 6–4, 5–2, 4–1, 6–3, 5–1, etc. The same chord inversion played on different string sets produces the same harmonic content but different physical shapes and registers. Full fretboard coverage of any chord requires knowing it across all viable string sets.

A guitar arranging technique in which the melody note of a song is harmonised on each beat, with the chord and melody played simultaneously. The melody typically sits on the highest string of the voicing. Chord melody is one of the most demanding guitar styles — it requires the player to simultaneously play the roles of soloist, accompanist, and bassist. Upper structure triads are particularly effective because they generate complex extended harmony from compact, physically manageable shapes.

Accompanying a soloist by playing chords — short for accompanying. In jazz guitar, comping means supporting a melodic line with rhythmically varied, harmonically rich chord voicings. Good comping is interactive and reactive — leaving space when the soloist plays, filling space when they don't. Drop 2 and shell voicings are the primary comping tools for jazz guitarists because they sit in the middle register and allow efficient voice leading.

A picking technique combining the plectrum (held between thumb and index finger) with the remaining fingers of the picking hand. Particularly useful for double stops, chord melody, and arpeggiated figures where simultaneous notes on non-adjacent strings would be difficult with a plectrum alone.

A picking technique in which the plectrum moves in a single continuous stroke across multiple strings — sweeping rather than alternate picking. Used for arpeggios spanning three or more strings, sweep picking allows fast, fluid execution of multi-string patterns. Requires the left hand to fret each note in sequence (not simultaneously) so that only one note sounds at a time despite the continuous right-hand motion.

A left-hand technique in which a single finger covers multiple strings sequentially by rolling from its tip to its pad (or vice versa), producing clean separation between notes on adjacent strings. Used for passages requiring legato movement across multiple strings at speed.

Smooth, connected note production achieved primarily through hammer-ons and pull-offs rather than picked attacks. Legato playing reduces pick noise and creates a flowing, vocal quality in melodic lines.

Two notes played simultaneously on adjacent strings. A frequently used device in blues improvisation — intervals of a major or minor sixth harmonised on two strings create the characteristic double-stop sound. Requires hybrid picking or fingerstyle technique for clean execution.

Melodic lines that move in leaps of a fifth, sixth, or greater — as opposed to stepwise scale-based movement. Wide interval playing creates a more angular, modern jazz sound. The whole tone scale played in fifth intervals is a specific application that produces a very modern, wide and jagged quality.

Using the interval of a perfect fourth as the primary melodic interval within an improvised line. Fourth-based lines have a distinctive open, modern quality — the sound is less tonal and more ambiguous than third or scale-based movement. Associated with post-bop jazz playing.

A chord in which one finger — usually the first — is laid flat across multiple strings to depress them all at a single fret, functioning as a movable nut. Barre chords are the mechanism by which open-position chord shapes are transposed up the neck to any key. The five basic movable shapes (derived from open E, A, D, G and C forms) constitute the CAGED system.

A framework for organising the fretboard by connecting five movable chord shapes derived from the open C, A, G, E and D major chords. Every major chord across the neck can be played as one of these five shapes; the shapes overlap so that any position on the neck sits within one CAGED form. The system also organises the corresponding scales and arpeggios: the major scale in five positions maps directly onto the five CAGED chord shapes, giving a unified framework for chords, arpeggios and scales.

Two left-hand techniques for producing notes without picking. A hammer-on: a fretting finger strikes the string forcefully behind a higher fret than the note currently sounding, causing the higher note to sound. A pull-off: a fretting finger releases with a slight sideways plucking motion, revealing a lower fretted or open note. Together they are the mechanical basis of legato playing.

Raising the pitch of a fretted note by physically pushing the string across the fingerboard while it sounds. Common bend intervals: half-step (one fret), whole-step (two frets), minor third (three frets), whole-step-and-a-half. The pre-bend approach — bending the string before striking, then releasing to reveal the target pitch — is a distinctive blues and country technique. Central to the vocal quality of blues, rock and country guitar phrasing.

Moving the fretting finger from one fret to another while the string continues to sound, producing a continuous glissando between the two pitches. A legato slide connects two notes smoothly; a shift slide moves position without emphasising the intermediate pitches; a slide into or out of a note (from below or above with no defined starting pitch) is a common expressive device in blues, jazz and country.

A rapid, slight and controlled variation in the pitch of a sustained note, produced by moving the fretting finger back and forth (classical/wrist vibrato) or by rocking the string up and down (blues/rock vibrato). Vibrato brings a vocal, sustained quality to held notes and is one of the most personal expressive elements of any guitarist's sound.

Resting the side of the picking-hand palm lightly on the strings near the bridge while picking, damping the strings' sustain and producing a percussive, muted tone. Widely used in rock, metal and funk rhythm guitar; also useful in jazz for controlled bass note dampening beneath a comp pattern.

Bell-like tones produced by lightly touching a string at specific points along its length rather than fretting it. A natural harmonic is produced on an open string, most cleanly at the 12th, 7th and 5th frets (the octave, octave-plus-fifth and two-octave points). An artificial (or pinch) harmonic is produced on a fretted note by lightly touching the string at an octave above the fretted position while picking, isolating the upper harmonic. Central to the sound of players like Lenny Breau, Ted Greene and Eddie Van Halen in very different musical worlds.

A clamp placed across the strings at a chosen fret, effectively raising the pitch of every open string by a fixed number of semitones. Allows a guitarist to play open-position chord shapes in any key — commonly used in folk, singer-songwriter and classical accompaniment contexts. A capo at the second fret means every open-string shape sounds a whole tone higher; a D chord shape becomes E in sound.

A tuning in which the open strings form a chord rather than the standard EADGBE. Common examples: open G (DGDGBD), open D (DADF♯AD), DADGAD (widely used in Celtic music), open C (CGCGCE). Open tunings simplify certain chord shapes and slide guitar playing, and open new harmonic possibilities unavailable in standard tuning — particularly for fingerstyle arrangements where drone strings and unusual voicings become natural.

Classical guitar right-hand notation labels the picking fingers by their Spanish names: p (pulgar, thumb), i (indice, index), m (medio, middle), a (anular, ring). The classical right hand typically covers the bass strings with p and the treble strings with i, m and a — allowing multiple voices to be played simultaneously. This same finger assignment is used in fingerstyle arrangements across jazz, folk and Latin idioms.

A system of music notation specific to fretted instruments. Instead of notes on a staff, TAB uses six horizontal lines representing the six strings of the guitar (thinnest string at the top, thickest at the bottom) with numbers indicating which fret to press. A zero means the string is played open (unfretted). TAB is the most widely used notation system for guitarists because it requires no knowledge of standard music notation to read. Most published guitar music includes both standard notation and TAB in parallel.

A unit of musical time between two vertical bar lines on the staff. Each bar contains a fixed number of beats as determined by the time signature. In 4/4 time, every bar contains four beats; in 3/4 time, three beats. Bars organise music into regular repeating units, making it easier to count, memorise, and communicate with other musicians. The terms bar and measure mean exactly the same thing — bar is standard in British English, measure in American English.

A symbol at the beginning of a piece indicating how many beats are in each bar and what kind of note gets one beat. Written as two numbers stacked vertically — the top number gives beats per bar; the bottom indicates the note value that counts as one beat (4 = quarter note/crotchet, 8 = eighth note/quaver). Common time signatures: 4/4 (four quarter-note beats — the most common in jazz and popular music), 3/4 (three quarter-note beats — waltz time), 6/8 (six eighth-note beats — a lilting, two-in-a-bar compound feel).

A note followed by a dot, which adds half of the note's original value to its duration. A dotted quarter note lasts for one and a half beats (one beat plus half a beat). A dotted half note lasts for three beats. Dotted rhythms create a characteristic long-short pattern that adds lilt and forward momentum — the dotted quarter followed by an eighth note is one of the most common rhythmic figures in folk, classical and popular music.

A curved line connecting two notes of the same pitch, indicating they are held for their combined duration rather than re-struck. The first note is played; the second is not struck again but continues to sound for the length of both notes added together. Ties are used when a note needs to last across a bar line, or when a duration cannot be expressed as a single note value. Distinguished from a slur (which connects notes of different pitches and indicates legato playing) by the fact that a tie always connects two notes of identical pitch.

A symbol at the beginning of a staff that fixes the pitch of the lines and spaces. The treble clef (G clef) fixes G4 on the second line — used for guitar, violin and other higher-pitched instruments. The bass clef fixes F3 on the fourth line — used for bass guitar, cello and left-hand piano. Standard guitar notation is written in treble clef but sounds an octave lower than written; some scores mark this with a small 8 below the clef.

A grouping of sharps or flats placed at the beginning of a staff (immediately after the clef) indicating which notes are consistently altered throughout the piece — and by extension, which key the music is in. C major and A minor have no sharps or flats; G major and E minor have one sharp (F♯); F major and D minor have one flat (B♭); and so on around the cycle of fifths. Every major key shares its key signature with its relative minor. The GMI database uses capitalised names for both — G minor, F♯ minor, B♭ minor.

Symbols placed before a note that temporarily alter its pitch. The sharp (♯) raises the note by a semitone; the flat (♭) lowers it by a semitone; the natural (♮) cancels a previous sharp or flat within the same bar or as indicated by the key signature. The double sharp (𝄪) raises a note by a whole tone; the double flat (𝄫) lowers it by a whole tone. Double accidentals appear when spelling harmony correctly — in some altered dominant chords, for example, the ♭♭7 of a diminished seventh chord must be written as a double flat rather than as its enharmonic natural equivalent.

A symbol indicating silence for a specific duration. Every note value has a corresponding rest value: whole rest, half rest, quarter rest, eighth rest, sixteenth rest, and so on. Rests are as important as notes — silence in music is expressive and structural, and phrasing depends as much on where notes stop as where they start.

The standard hierarchy of note durations, each half the length of the one before it. Whole note (semibreve) = four beats; half note (minim) = two beats; quarter note (crotchet) = one beat; eighth note (quaver) = half a beat; sixteenth note (semiquaver) = a quarter of a beat; thirty-second note (demisemiquaver) = an eighth of a beat. Dots and ties extend these basic durations; triplets subdivide them into groups of three.

A group of three notes played in the time normally occupied by two of the same value. An eighth-note triplet fits three eighth notes into one beat instead of two. Marked in notation with a small 3 above or below the group, often with a bracket. Triplets create the characteristic subdivided feel of swing (approximated as a triplet with the first two notes tied) and are essential to blues, jazz and Latin rhythm.

A curved line connecting notes of different pitches, indicating they are to be played legato (smoothly, connected). On guitar, a slur commonly implies that the connected notes are produced by hammer-ons or pull-offs rather than by separate picked attacks. Visually similar to a tie, but a slur always connects notes of different pitches while a tie always connects two notes of identical pitch.

One or more notes at the start of a phrase or piece that precede the first full bar — leading into the downbeat of bar one. Also called a pickup or upbeat. When present, the opening bar is incomplete and its missing beats are counted at the end of the final bar so that the total remains balanced. Countless jazz standards and popular songs begin with an anacrusis — the melody starts on beat four of an unwritten bar zero.

A symbol (a curved arc over a dot) placed over a note or rest indicating that it should be held for longer than its written duration — the exact length is at the performer's discretion. Also called a pause or hold. Commonly appears at final chords, dramatic breaks, or the end of a cadenza.

Symbols indicating the volume of the music. The core hierarchy: pp (pianissimo, very soft), p (piano, soft), mp (mezzo-piano, moderately soft), mf (mezzo-forte, moderately loud), f (forte, loud), ff (fortissimo, very loud). Gradual changes are marked with crescendo (getting louder) and diminuendo or decrescendo (getting softer). Dynamics are one of the primary expressive tools in every idiom — a phrase without dynamic shape sounds mechanical regardless of how accurately its notes are played.

Symbols indicating how a note is to be attacked and released. Staccato (a small dot above or below the note) shortens the note, leaving space before the next. Accent (>) emphasises the note with extra weight. Tenuto (a horizontal line) instructs the player to hold the note for its full written duration with a slight emphasis. Marcato (^) is a stronger accent. Articulation, along with dynamics, is what separates a technically correct performance from a musically expressive one.

Navigation symbols that instruct the performer to move around the score non-linearly. Repeat marks (a double bar line with two dots) enclose a section to be played twice. D.C. (Da Capo) means return to the beginning. D.S. (Dal Segno) means return to the segno symbol (𝄋). Coda (𝄌) marks a jump to the concluding section — usually reached via the instruction To Coda. Fine indicates the end of the piece. These symbols allow long forms to be notated compactly by reusing written material.

The distance in pitch between two notes, measured by counting the letter names spanned (1st through 8th) and refined by a quality (perfect, major, minor, augmented, diminished). Intervals are the atomic building block of everything in Western harmony — chords are stacked intervals, scales are sequences of intervals, and voice leading is the study of how intervals resolve. Understanding intervals fluently on the fretboard is the single most valuable investment a guitarist can make.

The smallest interval in Western music — the distance of one fret on the guitar. Also called a half step. Twelve semitones make one octave. Every scale, chord and mode is ultimately a specific pattern of semitones and whole tones stacked on top of a root note.

An interval of two semitones — two frets on the guitar. Also called a whole step or major second. The major scale is built from a specific pattern of tones and semitones: T·T·S·T·T·T·S. Distinct from the whole tone scale, which is a six-note scale in which every adjacent interval is a whole tone.

The unison, fourth, fifth and octave are described as perfect rather than major or minor. Their name reflects their acoustic purity — the simple frequency ratios (2:3 for a perfect fifth, 3:4 for a perfect fourth) produce the most stable, consonant intervals in the tonal system. A perfect interval raised by a semitone becomes augmented; lowered by a semitone becomes diminished.

The second, third, sixth and seventh come in major and minor forms. A major interval lowered by a semitone becomes minor; lowered by another semitone becomes diminished. A major interval raised by a semitone becomes augmented. Major intervals: major 2nd (2 semitones), major 3rd (4), major 6th (9), major 7th (11). Minor equivalents are one semitone smaller: minor 2nd (1), minor 3rd (3), minor 6th (8), minor 7th (10).

An augmented interval is one semitone larger than a perfect or major interval; a diminished interval is one semitone smaller than a perfect or minor interval. Enharmonically these often coincide with more familiar intervals — an augmented fourth and a diminished fifth are both six semitones (the tritone) — but the spelling is chosen to reflect the harmonic context. The ♯11 in a Lydian Dominant chord is written as an augmented fourth, not a diminished fifth, because it functions as a raised 4th degree.

The interval between two notes twelve semitones apart — a frequency ratio of exactly 2:1. The two notes share the same letter name and sound as versions of the same pitch in different registers. On the guitar, an octave can be found five frets higher on the next string (except across the B–G string boundary, where it shifts by one fret). Recognising octave shapes on the fretboard is a fundamental navigation skill.

Two instances of the same pitch played simultaneously — technically an interval of zero semitones. On the guitar, unisons are frequently played on adjacent strings (e.g. B string 5th fret and high E string open both give an E) to create a rich, chorus-like sound with subtle beating between the two strings.

An interval larger than an octave. Compound intervals share their character with the simple interval one octave smaller — a 9th is functionally a compound 2nd, an 11th is a compound 4th, a 13th is a compound 6th. This is exactly why chord extensions use the compound labels: the 9th of a chord is the 2nd raised an octave, played in a register where it colours the harmony without clashing.

The process of turning an interval upside down by moving the lower note up an octave (or the upper note down an octave). Inversion follows a simple arithmetic: the two interval sizes always sum to 9 (a 3rd inverts to a 6th, a 4th inverts to a 5th, a 2nd inverts to a 7th). Quality flips: major becomes minor, augmented becomes diminished, perfect stays perfect. Understanding inversion is central to voice leading — the movement of the 3rd and 7th of a chord to the 7th and 3rd of the next chord is interval inversion in action.

BPM stands for beats per minute — the speed at which the pulse of the music moves. A tempo of 60 BPM means one beat per second; 120 BPM is exactly two beats per second. Traditional Italian tempo markings correspond loosely to BPM ranges: Largo (40–60), Adagio (66–76), Andante (76–108), Moderato (108–120), Allegro (120–168), Presto (168–200). In the Practice Studio, exercises have a target_bpm and can be transposed and re-tempoed to suit the player's stage of learning.

In straight eighths, each pair of eighth notes is divided evenly — 50/50. In swung (or swing) eighths, the first eighth is longer than the second — approximately a triplet subdivision, so the pair becomes roughly two-thirds/one-third. Straight eighths characterise rock, funk, Latin, bossa nova and much modern jazz; swung eighths are the default of traditional jazz. The decision between the two is often the single most important stylistic choice a rhythm section makes.

A Brazilian music style developed in Rio de Janeiro in the late 1950s, blending samba rhythm with cool jazz harmony. The bossa nova rhythm is played with straight (not swung) eighths at a relaxed tempo, with a distinctive syncopated guitar pattern and understated brush drumming. The harmonic vocabulary is unmistakably jazz: rich extended chords, II–V–I progressions, and sophisticated reharmonisations. Composers Antônio Carlos Jobim and João Gilberto defined the idiom.

A broad family of rhythmic idioms rooted in Cuban and Brazilian music. Characterised by straight (not swung) eighths, syncopated bass patterns anchored to the clave, and rhythmic layering across the ensemble. Includes bossa nova, samba, salsa, cha-cha, mambo and Afro-Cuban 6/8. Latin feel is often used in a jazz context to give a familiar standard a different rhythmic identity — the same chord progression can be played straight-ahead swing or Latin with completely different results.

A rhythmic feel based on triplet subdivisions of the beat, where the middle triplet is omitted or de-emphasised — producing a distinctive long-short bouncing pattern. The shuffle underlies most traditional blues and much early rock and roll. The difference between shuffle and swing is largely one of tempo and instrumentation — both share the triplet-based subdivision, but shuffle is typically heavier, slower and more overtly rhythmic.

A rhythmic idiom characterised by tight, syncopated sixteenth-note grooves anchored by a heavy backbeat on beats two and four. The rhythm section — bass, drums and guitar — locks into interlocking patterns, often based on a two-bar phrase. Funk guitar comping is typically staccato, muted, and highly rhythmic, using a limited harmonic palette (often a single 7th or 9th chord) to keep the focus on rhythmic groove rather than harmonic movement.

A slow, expressive tempo — typically 60–80 BPM — most often used for lyrical, emotive material. Jazz ballads emphasise chord melody, rich extended voicings, rubato phrasing and space between notes. The ballad is one of the most demanding contexts for improvisation because every note is exposed — technique alone will not carry the performance; phrasing, tone and taste are everything.

Half-time: the underlying pulse is felt at half the notated tempo — the backbeat falls on beat 3 of every four-beat bar instead of beats 2 and 4, effectively stretching every notated beat into two felt beats. Double-time: the reverse — the pulse is felt at twice the notated tempo, with the bar subdivided into eight rather than four felt beats. Double-time is a common device for building intensity in a jazz solo without literally speeding up.

An accent placed on beats two and four of a four-beat bar — opposite to the strong beats one and three where classical downbeats fall. The backbeat is the rhythmic engine of rock, R&B, funk and pop, typically played on the snare drum. In jazz, the backbeat is felt but not necessarily accented as strongly — the hi-hat on beats two and four provides a lighter version of the same feel.

A two-bar rhythmic pattern from Afro-Cuban music that governs how every other rhythmic element in the ensemble aligns. The two most important forms are the son clave (3-2 or 2-3) and the rumba clave. In authentic Latin performance, all other parts — bass, piano, guitar, horns — must be in clave, meaning their accents align with the clave pattern rather than fight against it. Understanding clave is fundamental to playing convincing Latin music of any style.